Nursing Theory Plan of Care Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Nursing Theory Plan of Care - Research Paper Example Most of the nursing models are capable of producing effective care plans towards documenting the patient’s treatment so that all other healthcare workers and professional who encounter such a patient will know the patient’s condition. However, the care plan should be to allow daily evaluation and changes as the needs and ability of the patient may change. Notably, the care plans are often shaped by the nursing model or theories upon which the car plan was formulated. Thus, the nursing theories have a significant impact on the significant of the clinical practices. Dorothea Orem’s general theory is among the nursing theories that provide a fundamental framework that define nursing care practices that should be offered to patients. The Orem’s general theory is often defined by three highly defined theories including the self-care theory. The self-care theory defines the activities that a patient needs to achieve a complete or achieve optimum health Orem, Ren penning, and Taylor, 2003). Additionally, Orem’s theory is defined by self-care deficit that specifies when the nursing care in appropriate for the patient who can meet his or her self-care needs. Finally, the Orem’s general theory is defined by the nursing systems theory that describes how the nurse, patient, or both working together will meet the underlined self-care needs. The Orem’s theory ensures that a nurse properly identifies the self-care deficits of the patient’s ability. A nurse can achieve this through acting or guiding the patients or other parties involve in her or his care in supporting the patient (Roussel and Swansburg, 2009). Moreover, the nurse should provide a friendly environment that encourages the patient thereby developing self-care abilities. Such environment can be achieved through teaching the patient and others persons involve in his care on how to meet the environmental self-care needs of the patient. Therefore, the main aim o f the Orem’s self-care model is enable patients and  their  family  or caregivers  to maintain or take care of their health (Meleis, 2011). Orem’s Model Health Care Plan There are numerous health care plans that are proposed by Orem’s model of practice and Mr. Issler must consider undertaking all of them. 1. Universal self-care requisites I will advise Mr. Issler to maintain human integrity in order to allow proper functioning of his body structures. In providing health care for Mr. Issler, the following requisites shall be to consider Maintain sufficient air, water, and food intake Provision of health care assoc through elimination process Mr. Issler to be advised to balance between chores and rest and between solitude and social interaction He is to avoid hazardous life like getting to congested and overcrowded places 2. Developmental self-care requi

Memories on Cities, Nature and People through the Lenses of Andre Essay

Memories on Cities, Nature and People through the Lenses of Andre Aciman - Essay Example Definitely, Alexandria goes first in such a recollection by the author. It is a source for his passion where he is inclined to take a glimpse at the past experience which is never-ending for his entire life. Thus, the first claim of significance is that Aciman is well devoted to the value of a memory. Thereupon, in Alexandria: The Capital of Memory he states on what he gained and missed being an ordinary denizen of the city while the political conflict sprang up in his youth and what Alexandria means to him at present (Aciman 6). It is a so-called memoir represented through the lenses of the writer’s vision of sweet memories and dreams about this location. On the other hand, Aciman is sensitive to the subtle facets of his soul each time he reproduces his own vision of life and living it in close relation with the environment. Just roaming the streets of Alexandria helps the writer focus more on the way everything functions and stays in the city (Aciman 10). It is a particular way to fix the picture of the location at the writer’s specific foreshortening just in case something will change in the future. Such sweet things keep track to the writer’s appreciation of his young ages and how they went on. Besides, In Search of Blue depicts Aciman’s reasoning on the most valued features to stay in mind. It is unlikely that he is dreaming about some material amenities or some lucre. He is dedicated more to the abstract images of what he sees and what will be accumulated in his widespread mind afterwards. Flashbacks feed Aciman in his trip to Rome along with his parents. Along with Alexandria, Rome is a part of the writer’s colorful life (Aciman 24). It is all about a man living his life along and with the family at once. Aciman is open to describe the power of his feelings through the shades and hues of blue, namely: â€Å"For years this wonderful expanse of still and timeless blue, where hills and rippleless beaches seemed made to ex ist in memory alone, belonged nowhere† (Aciman 24). Admittedly, the writer aims at the height of his imagination while taking a look at the natural beauty of the city he lived in. Past memories presuppose the sense of living for Aciman. He takes care of each slight memory so as to keep it alive and vivid. Thus, in search of blue, Andre Aciman seems to find out the exact way of thinking about what a man can bear with him/her throughout life. In his another essay called Shadow Cities, the writer makes an attempt to bind another city to make sure a reader knows what New York means to him. The essay represents his worries about what happened to a little Straus Park just within the city (Aciman 38). He does not hesitate to come closer to the overall idea of a virtue and social responsibility of people inhabiting the city and contributing into its further development. It is all about the way Aciman once shared the significance of natural episodes within concrete jungles of todayâ₠¬â„¢s urbanized world. However, it does not describe him as an opponent of the city. He finds New York pretty magnificent along with its streets and avenues. Therefore, the writer’s great desire states as follows: â€Å"I wanted everything to remain the same† (Aciman 38). It is a voice of despair the writer faced in New York and realized it would never stop in the future. Everything is in the state of flux, as they say. However, Aciman behaves as a real foreigner keeping in mind the things as they were earlier. Hence, he illustrates his strict incapability to get accustomed with new names of the stores or some change to the places of sightseeing he once encountered in his life. To say more, being an adolescent, Andre Aciman obtained precious knowledge of what the world means to a man. Insofar, the essay called Square Lamartine is also a compilation

Teaching strategies and adaptations shown to be effective for teaching Essay

Teaching strategies and adaptations shown to be effective for teaching individuals with learning disabilities - Essay Example Teaching Strategies for Learning Disabled Students Teaching strategies play a critical role in improving the learning abilities of learning-disabled children. Those strategies assist the teachers not only in interacting with learning-disabled children but also in improving learning and comprehension abilities of the children. Some of the most appropriate teaching strategies include repeated reading intervention, evidence based reading strategy, computer based teaching strategy, and reading comprehension strategy for the learning-disabled students. In repeated learning reading intervention strategy, repeated reading practices are used to provide multiple exposures to same words to the disabled children. â€Å"For students with or at risk for learning disabilities, developing fluency with reading connected texts remains a formidable challenge† (Chard, Ketterlin-Geller, Baker, Doabler, & Apichatabutra, 2009, p. 263-281). Evidence based and reading comprehension strategies are ver y effective in improving the literacy sills of the children.

A Problem Exists Essay Example for Free

A Problem Exists Essay My Assignment 4 Persuasive Paper Part 1: A Problem Exists, will inform of the author’s thesis on this paper. Additionally, the history of gun laws will also be incorporated in this paper. Moreover, this report will speak on several issues and or problems that author looks upon as unfavorable achievements, promoted by gun laws. Lastly, a conclusion for possible improvements if concealed weapons laws were not permitted will be included in this report. As we view the news and read newspaper articles, there continues to be ongoing stories and articles of school and workplace shootings and hostile environments. It appears that individuals of society are even lashing out at the innocent, when things are not done as they may see fit. For example Sandy Hook shooting took the lives of many innocent children, who victims of a troubled individual. Due to the excessive murders that are being committed in schools and workplaces, at this time, the author still agrees that citizens should not be allowed to carry concealed weapons to schools, or the workplace. Georgia actually created the first gun control law in 1837. This Georgia law banned handguns. However it was not long lived, because eight years later The Georgia Supreme Court deemed it unconstitutional and cited the Second Amendment as its basis for this determination. The Second Amendment states â€Å"the right of the people to keep and bear arms (U. S. Const. amend. II, 1791). After the Civil War, Black Codes in several Southern States sought to prevent blacks from owning and carrying guns. That essentially ended in 1868, with the Fourteenth Amendment’s citizenship guarantee and equal rights clause† (Goforth, 2013). Since then numerous laws have been debated and created. The first problem with the right to carry conceals weapon within the school is the potential environmental concern for continuous mass murders. For informational purposes, â€Å"We will begin with the definition of mass murder as four or more murders at a single location (a school, workplace, home or public place)† (Hillshafer, 2013). There have been three significant mass school murders in the past 14 years. They are the 1999 Columbine High School Massacre, the 2007 Virginia Tech Shootings and the Sandy Hook Elementary School shooting. In the author’s opinion had the administration been allowed to carry concealed weapons the total of murders would have been escalated. Hostile environments more than likely create hostile situations and altercations. â€Å"The likely explanation that Concealed Carry plus Stand Your Ground laws result in 600 more deaths per year is that a young man with a concealed weapon in an argument is more likely to escalate the dispute and think he is standing his ground† (Hillshafer, 2013). As the year 2013 begun there continues to be great debate and political issues on what the gun laws should be or what the laws should cover. In January, 2013 it was written â€Å"The great American gun fight began this month with handshakes and smiles in a reunion of old foes at the Vice President’s ceremonial office† (Schered, 2013). This statement helps to enlighten us on the ongoing political rivalry that continues amongst our candidates. Our American leaders should put focus on what will really save lives on the American people instead of what will make them more famous, prominent or a great candidate amongst the people. As we all maybe aware our country entered a recessional period in the year of 2008. At this time there were numerous lay-offs, â€Å"Nationwide economic recession, which has led to cities and governmental organizational laying-off police and law enforcement personnel† (Nykodym et al. , 2011). This was a period where economic issues were examined thoroughly and everyone was in search of a means to increase revenue. Those layoffs led to increased crime rates in cities, which the author believes were then used for economic gain. â€Å"Record high rates of concealed firearm carry permits issued to the public, motivated by a well-organized social movement for Second Amendment Constructionism, accompanied by increases in firearms and ammunition sales such that many dealers cannot meet customer demand† (Nykodym et al. , 2011). This is unthinkable, but true the unfortunate layoffs boosted our economy on a different level. The author beliefs are that it wrong to take someone else’s misfortune for personal gains. In this situation, it could also cause the death of many innocent victims, because of the high rate of gun sales. In conclusion many aspects were discussed. Such as hostile environments, and the possibility of escalating violence with concealed weapons being present. Additionally, political gains were discussed on how candidates use gun laws as a chance for recognition. And the third point was the unfortunate economic use of gun laws. Perhaps if concealed weapons are not allowed, escalated incidents would not arrive, because defendants/victims would not have that extra boost which causes an occurrence to end with gun fire. If candidates concentrate on the prestige of human lives and not political gain our society could be populated with more individuals who were killed due to unfavorable gun laws. And finally, maybe society should concentrate more on what would be ethically or morally suitable, such as the welfare of all humans. We as humans should stop looking for personal gain in every event that happens along the way.

Risk And Adults With Learning Disabilities

Risk And Adults With Learning Disabilities A significantly reduced ability to understand new or complex information, to learn new skills (impaired intelligence), with a reduced ability to cope independently (impaired social functioning); and a condition which started before adulthood, with a lasting effect on development (Scottish Executive, 2010). People with learning disabilities comprise of a highly vulnerable section of the society, who have limited access to health care facilities / services offered to them. They are often faced with obstacles and challenges while copying with grave situations such as loss and bereavement of loved ones, personal illness, death etc (Elliott, 1995). This, in turn, tends to aggravate their situation and increase their dependence on the society which includes their friends, family and loved ones as well as the community in general. They are known to have been ignored persistently in terms of providing services in the need of personal illness, death, and other challenging life situations, thus increasing their vulnerability all the more. Risk vulnerability: People with learning disabilities are one of the most vulnerable groups in the society (Department of Health 2001). People with learning disabilities has probably one of the worst histories is neglect and ill treatment in any group of society. Among the most vulnerable members of society they cant speak up for themselves. Concepts of risk assessment and management in psychiatry increasingly reflect public and professional anxieties that people with a mental disorder may harm others (Simon Halstead (997). At risk are the mens victims whose suffering was often exacerbated by service providers failure to protect them. For example, if consequences are limited when a man with learning disabilities abuses another person with learning disabilities, the victim may be left with the idea that such behaviour is normal and acceptable, and that services will provide little protection and that their complaints will not be heard. It may also increase their vulnerability to further abuse because abuse can become normalised (McCarthy and Thompson, 1996). The oxford dictionary define noun risk as meaning a hazard, a dangerous, exposure to mischance or peril, as verb it also similar which means hazard, to danger, to expose to the chance of injury or loss(P. Parsloe, 2005). Risk is closely linked to dangerousness, resulting in harm which seems to be agreed means harm to self or others and extend of harm which constitutes a risk in various situations especially adult with learning disabilities. If you dont know for sure what will happen, but you know the odd that is risk and if you dont know the odd that is uncertainty (Knight, 1921). From this definition of risk concentrate upon the probabilistic components in knowledge, and is agnostic as to whether this involves probabilities of good of bad outcomes. Royal Society(1983), risk assessment which saw as the probability that a particular adverse event occurs and social services has been concerned predominate with risk assessment to prevent harm. They may also suffer further if they have to deal with seeing their perpetrator on a regular basis, and may be subject to further assaults in retaliation of their initial complaint. It has been noted above how services frequently respond inadequately to the abuse of people with learning disabilities by men with learning disabilities: only rarely will the police be involved and most victims will have no option but to continue to see their attacker on a daily basis (Thompson, 1997). In addition to the risks to existing victims, poor responses may result in increasing numbers of people being abused. Definiation of vulanarable adult in section 80(6) care standard act 2000 states that- (a) an adult to whom accomodation and nursing or personal care are provided in care hom (b) in adult to whom personal care is provided in their own home under arrangements mad by a domiliciary care agency.(Ian. PeateD.Fearns-2006) Adult with learnign disabilities, and thos peopl who have a lescapcity like who have mental illness, old and frail,need protection from potentially abusive sitaution over which they might have little control (Department of Health,2000). Learning Disability Adolescents obviously do not always act in ways that serve their own best interests, even as defined by them. Sometimes their perception of their own risks, even of survival to adulthood, is larger than the reality; in other cases, they underestimate the risks of particular actions or behaviours. It is possible, indeed likely, that some adolescents engage in risky behaviours because of a perception of invulnerability-the current conventional wisdom of adults views of adolescent behaviour. Others, however, take risks because they feel vulnerable to a point approaching hopelessness (Fischhoff et al., 2000). In either case, these perceptions can prompt adults to make poor decisions that can put them at risk and leave them vulnerable t o physical or psychological harm that may have a negative impact on their long-term health and viability. Learning Disabilities: Risk Assessment Decision Making Process/ Practice Tools: Every day a lot of risk situation changes rapidly and what applied yesterday but may not today. Those service users who are identified as at risk would be provided highly effective instruction to reduce their risk in the identified area (e.g., language, reading, numeracy/ math, behaviour). Service users whose response to instruction moved them out of risk status would receive no further supplemental intervention. Service users whose response to well-documented, effective, and well-implemented instruction was low or who remained at risk would be considered for placement in special education. Thus, potentially, many Users could benefit from this type of an identification procedure. (S.Vaughn and Lynn S. Fuchs, 2003). For minimize risk and make it useful and meaningful, may risk situations need to be reassessed regularly perhaps daily basis according service users daily need. People with learning disabilities are subject to risk all time due to their vulnerability they sometimes abused by those who have control over them or by those who realize that they are vulnerable because of their disabilities they often find it very much more difficult to assess risk the way most of us do. While most of carer don dont asses risk very efficiently they generally make some attempt to do so. Its not easy at all to do risk assessment as it is a complex task and most of the time carer or support worker they do adequately but not very thoroughly. Adult with learning disabilities they always find this difficult and also fail to recognize any risk at all as they cant explain due to lack of communication. In spite of some difficulties, there is an increasing awareness that people with learning disabilities can make choices, moreover they want to do so. However its often fail to consider is that, the amount of risk that these choices carry and most of us have grown up accustomed to risk-taking. Life is full risks we all take risk all the time and the more familiar they are the less we tend to recognize the real level of risk involved.(Refe). Many problems about assessing risk that different services user may perceive the different risk. What is acceptable to one person may not be acceptable to another. Main objective of the risk assessment when its possible may sometimes affect decision making in number of different ways. Its true many people with learning disabilities who are always facing risk in their everyday life. Significantly about choice decision sometimes its difficult for adult as well carer to make right choice how could be at risk. The difficulty for people with learning disabilities is that carers often do feel often they are expected to make these choices for them. The law of negligence can appear to inhibit decision making personal freedom and choice sit uncomfortably next to the concepts of duty of care and professional liability (Ref.). people with learning disabilities may not have done perhaps carers need to be encourage to help their service users how to make choices with and appreciation of the risk involved. This is more challenging task than just encouraging choice alone it seems that not only should people with learning be allowed to make choices and take risk they should actively be encourage to do. Multidisciplinary Risk Assessment: The problem with the right to make choices is that it assumes that adult with learning disabilities are able to make choice about risk in the same way every one does(Refe.). we have to acknowledge that adult with learning disabilities do have real difficulties with many cognitive takes. Most we have problems in assessing risk effectively because of the complexity of doing so it is likely that people with learning disabilities will find the particular difficult. The assessment of ability to consent and the ability to make real choice, especially in relation to understanding the likely consequences of the choices or decision made. It could be helpful when any risk assessment pan to do like- If carer want to take any decision about the adult person, Is person are aware that about their decision at all? Are they communicating their choice decision making? Giving people with learning disabilities more choice especially about taking risk, its mean that carer have to be alert to the extent to which the service users are able realistically to assess the level of risks involved(Ref.). In order to decide when risk is acceptable, they need to consider a large number of pieces of information which is decision making become difficult for carer/support worker. Many adult with learning disabled the most successful way to avoid and minimize risk to avoid further problem is by effective management. When the person concerned may have been living in a setting where the opportunities for such behaviour have been very limited or absent, carers and professionals are sometimes tempted to assume that because the recent past has been incident-free the problem has disappeared. Risk Assessment: Never take someone with a learning disability swimming without first reviewing their risk assessment plan. A risk assessment is in place to address issues of importance such as dangers, hazards, and known triggers and how best to avoid them. Make sure you are familiar with the particular risks that you could face with the person in your care and that you have put measures in place to reduce, or eliminate, them. Assessment is a complex and time consuming task and it is a continuous process. Assessment of risk for adult with learning disabilities which should be evolutionary in nature constantly informed and shaped by changes of circumstances upon service users needs (M.Brown, 2003). The practice of risk assessment and management is the process of data collection, recording, interpretation, communication and implementation of risk reduction plan (Maden, 1996). For the risk of learning disability, clinical model of risk assessment have become the norm. There are two kinds of risk that are relevant to work people with learning disabilities, risk of unnecessary exposure to undesirable events or experience, and risk of negative consequences when possible benefits and desirable experiences are perused (Paul William, 2006). Above this it is clear that a strategy of prevention should implement, and management is required so that risk and benefit are balanced. In social care and health care there are broadly two main context of risk which are not provided and everyday risk in their life. people with learning disability to have a history of formally documented offence. Conclusion People with learning disabilities are beginning to reclaim the lives they lost in the institutions, having choices, jobs, sex lives and even becoming parents unthinkable until even quite recently. Slowly, perhaps far too slowly, the rest of the community is beginning to realize that the majority of people with learning disabilities are not so different from everyone else, and need the same things in their lives that all of us do: work, leisure, partners, and a sense of being part of a social group. They want to feel useful and valued, as we all do. Life is full of risks. We all take risks all the time, and the more familiar they are the less we tend to recognize the real level of risk involved. We actually take the greatest risk in our lives every time that we step into a car, but few of us really consider that risk seriously. This is the other side of the coin; we are inclined to believe that it wont happen to me, even when the objective statistics suggest otherwise. The difficulty that now exists for people with learning disabilities, especially those with greater handicaps, and those who care for and support them, is that the law specifies that many such people are vulnerable, and not able to make this choice for themselves. They are considered to be unable to assess the risks involved and thus make an independent choice. The onus of assessing risk and making the decision therefore often rests with carers. Because it is such a difficult decision to make for someone else, carers often take the simple way out, and avoid letting situations arise where learning-disabled people in their care have the opportunity to develop sexual relationships: if a person cannot make an informed choice then perhaps it is easier not to offer them that choice. This is the current dilemma for those who work in community care situations. The issue of sexual relationships is perhaps the most difficult and complex, but this problem of balancing risk and choice is a constant one for carers and professionals, in relation to many aspects of everyday life. In the background is the ogre of the law (and/or local management), ready to jump on the unwary, should they get it wrong. No wonder, perhaps that many are cautious about enabling such choices to be made. Recommendation Social services departments have seen a rise in the numbers of vulnerable adults referred to them because they are at risk of physical and sexual abuse, as well as financial fraud, a study has found. The survey of directors of adult services suggests the fallout from the death of Baby Peter has influenced social workers attitudes to vulnerable adults with more older people or those with a learning disability deemed to be at risk of abuse being referred for assessment. Speaking ahead of the national children and adults conference that opens today in Harrogate, the Local Government Association (LGA) warned that adults services were coming under increasing strain and called for reform of the way adult social services are funded to meet the explosion in demand and escalating costs. In others for example, in the increase in the number of adult safeguarding referrals it might be that the higher profile of risk and vulnerability has led to a greater vigilance by our care staff and by members of the public alike.

Plant Medicines in Cancer Treatment

Plant Medicines in Cancer Treatment Review of Literature Plants as therapeutic agents Plant medicines are the most widely used medicines in the world today. The use of herbs and plants as the first medicine is a universal phenomenon. Every culture on earth, through written or oral tradition, has relied on the vast variety of natural chemistry found in healing plants for their therapeutic properties (Serrentino 1991). Plants with therapeutic potential may be defined as any plant that can be put to culinary or medicinal use. Recent researches found that food and their constituents act in a manner similar to modern drugs without the dreaded side effects (Serrentino 1991). Sometimes plant medicine is viewed as complementary medicine, working closely with allopathic drugs. Nearly 5.1 billion people worldwide employ natural plant-based remedies as their primary medicines for both acute and chronic health problems, from treating common cold to controlling blood pressure and cholesterol (Stockwell, 1988). Most of the drugs were substances with a particular therapeutic action extracted from plants. Some medicines, such as the cancer drug Taxol from Taxus brevifolia and the anti-malarial quinine from Cinchona pubescens are manufactured from the plants. Other medicinal agents such as pseudoephedrine originally derived from ephedra species and methylsalicylate, derived from gaultheria procumbens are now synthesized. Plant medicines remain indispensable to modern pharmacology and clinical practice. Much of the current drug discovery and development process are plant-based, and new medicines derived from plants are inevitable. Functional foods A food can be regarded as a functional food if it is demonstrated to affect one or more target functions in the body beyond adequate nutrition and improves health/well-being or reduces the risk of diseases (Tsao and Akhtar, 2005). On this basis, a functional food can be a natural food, a food to which a positive component has been added, or from which a deleterious component has been removed or a food where the nature of one or more components has been modified (Tsao and Akhtar, 2005). While searching for new sources of functional food, attention has been paid to vegetables from the Cruciferae family, which more often used in the human diets. The cruciferous vegetables may thus become a potential source of a nutritious food or food ingredients. Recent research showed that cruciferous vegetables contain an appropriate amount of bioactive compounds such as GLs, ITCs, tocopherols, L-ascorbic acid, vitamin B, reduced glutathione, inositol phosphates and polyphenolic compounds [Nakamura e t al, 2001; Zielinski and Kozlowska, 2003; Zielinski et al, 2005; Takaya et al, 2003]. Cruciferous plants The family Cruciferae (Brassicaceae) is an economically important family with about 350 genera and 3000 species that includes several edible plants. Despite the great diversity among the crucifers, members of only a few genera are eaten. The most commonly eaten cruciferous vegetables belong to the genus Brassica that includes broccoli, cabbage, cauliflower, kale and Brussels sprouts. Other cruciferous vegetables used in the human diet such as radish, water cress, wasabi, horseradish, garden cress, Italian cress, Swiss chard and crambe belong to another genera of the family such as Raphanus, Nasturtium, Wasabia, Armoracia, Lepidium, Eruca, Beta and Crambe respectively. Cruciferous vegetables are important dietary constituents in many parts of the world and appear to account for about 10 15% of total vegetable intake, reaching almost 25% in countries with a high consumption (Bosetti et al, 2002; Chiu et al, 2003). However, regional pattern of crucifer consumption varies substantially in different parts of the world. The highest intake of cruciferous vegetable was reported to that of people in China, who consumed more than 100 g per day, representing about one-fourth of their total vegetable intake (Chiu et al, 2003). Other Asians and some Middle Eastern populations in Japan, Singapore, Thailand and Kuwait also have a relatively high intake of cruciferous vegetables, ranging from 40 80 g per day (Bosetti et al, 2002; Seow et al, 2002; Shannon et al, 2002; Memon et al, 2002). However, the only study carried out in India (Rajkumar et al, 2003) showed a lower daily intake of cruciferous plants, of about 17 g per day. In North America, the daily estima ted consumption was in the range of 16 40 g per day (Lin et al, 1998) and in South America, it was about 3 15 g per day (Atalah et al, 2001). The daily intake of cruciferous vegetables was reported to be about 5 30 g per day in Europe (Bosetti et al, 2002), 50 g per day in Australia (Nagle et al, 2003) and 15 g per day in South Africa (Steyn et al, 2003) respectively. Raphanus sativus R. sativus is believed to have originated in southern Asia and was cultivated in Egypt. The first cultivated R. sativus was black variety and later on white and red R. sativus were developed. It was highly esteemed in ancient Greece, and the Greek physician Androcydes ordered his patients to eat R. sativus as a preservative against intoxication. The Japanese white R. sativus, also named daikon, is the vegetable for which the literature reports the highest per capita consumption, quoted at 55 g per day in Japan (Talalay and Fahey, 2001). In addition to this, Japanese also consumes R. sativus sprouts under the name of Kaiware Daikon. Varieties of R. sativus There are six main varieties of R. sativus such as Daikons, Red Globe, White Globe, Black, White Icicles and California Mammoth White Daikons (R. sativus L) This variety is native to Asia. They are large and carrot-shaped, have a white flesh that is juicy and a bit hotter than a red radish, but milder than black. Red Globe (R. sativus var. red) This variety is the most popular in the United States. It is small, round or oval shaped, referred to as button red radishes and have a solid crisp flesh. White Globe (R. sativus var.white) This variety is small and oval shaped, referred to as hailstone or white button. They have white flesh and milder than the red variety. Black (R. sativus var. niger) This variety is thought to be native to Egypt and Asia. They are turnip-like in size and shape. They are quite pungent and drier than other varieties of radishes. White Icicles (R. sativus L var. thin) This variety is long and tapered. They have a white flesh that is milder than the red variety. California Mammoth White (R. sativus L var. large) A larger variety than the white icicle, these varieties have oblong- shaped roots and their flesh is slightly pungent. Nutritive value of R. sativus R. sativus root and its leafy part are ideal vegetables as they provide an excellent source of vitamin C. Leafy part contains almost six times the vitamin C content of its root and also a good source of calcium and iron. R. sativus is also a good source of potassium and folic acid. It is very low in fats. Approximately, 100 g of raw vegetable provides roughly 20 Kcal, coming largely from carbohydrates (Table 2.1). Thus R. sativus is a dietary food that is relatively filling for its caloric value. Some sources list R. sativus as being rich in dietary fiber, whereas other sources differ in respect of its roughage content (USDA Nutrient Database, 1999; Duke and Ayensu, 1985). Health benefits of R. sativus (Traditional usage of R. sativus) According to Hakeem Hashmi, an eminent Unani physician from India, R. sativus is unparallel in curing any kind of ailments. All the parts of R. sativus including its seed, stem, root and leaves are used in food and medicine. R. sativus is a unique vegetable having a hot and cold effect on the body simultaneously. R. sativus, like other members of the cruciferous family (cabbage, kale, broccoli, Brussels sprouts) contains cancer-protective properties. Liver and gall bladder disorders Throughout the history, R. sativus root and seeds have been effective when used as medicinal food for liver disorders. They contain sulfur-based compounds such as GLs and ITCs that increase the flow of bile and help to maintain healthy gallbladder and liver (Chevallier, 1996). They are useful in treating jaundice and also an excellent remedy for gall bladder stone. Kidney disorders R. sativus root, seeds and leaves are diuretic in nature and increase the urine output. Their diuretic properties help to flush out the toxins accumulated in the kidneys and protect them from infections and inflammatory conditions. It is an old belief that R. sativus can aid in the treatment as well as prevention of kidney stones (Chopra et al, 1986). Respiratory disorders R. sativus is an anti-congestive and relieves congestion of the respiratory system. It has found to be beneficial in problems associated with bronchitis (Bown, 1995) and asthma (Duke and Ayensu, 1985). Skin disorders R. sativus helps to cure skin disorders such as leucoderma, rashes, cracks, etc and also refreshes the skin by maintaining the moisture content of the skin (Duke and Ayensu, 1985). Digestive disorders R. sativus root, seeds and leaves are rich in roughage (indigestible carbohydrates) which facilitates digestion, retain water and relieve constipation (Chopra et al, 1986). They also soothe the digestive system and stimulate appetite (Chevallier, 1996) Nervous and vascular disorders R. sativus decreases nervous tensions and is also useful in enhancing blood circulation. It is a remedy for insomnia, hypochondria and irritative conditions of the central nervous system (Panda, 1999). Other benefits R. sativus is germicidal and suppresses phlegm. It is a good appetizer, mouth fresher, laxative, regulates metabolism, remedy for headache, acidity, piles, nausea, obesity, sore throat, whooping cough, dyspepsia, etc (Nadkarni, 1976; Kapoor, 1990). Chemical constituents of R. sativus GLs are an important and unique class of secondary plant metabolites found in the seeds, roots and leaves of R. sativus (Daxenbichler et al, 1991; Blazevic and Mastelic, 2009). GLSs include several naturally occurring thioglucosides with a common structure (Figure 2.2) characterized by side chains (R) with varying aliphatic, aromatic and heteroaromatic carbon skeletons, all presumably derived from amino acids by a chain-lengthening process and hydroxylation or oxidation (Larsen, 1981). In the intact cell, GLs are separated from thioglucosidase (EC 3.2.3.11), an enzyme generally known as myrosinase. When the plant cell structure is damaged, myrosinase catalyzes the hydrolysis of GLs to yield D-glucose, sulfate and a series of compounds including isothiocyanates, thiocyanates and nitriles, depending on both the substrate and the reaction conditions, especially the pH (Figure 2.2). GLs are also hydrolyzed by thioglucosidase activity of the intestinal microflora (Jeffery and Jarrell, 2001). 4-(methylthio)-3-butenyl glucosinolate (glucoraphasatin), 4-(methylsulfinyl) butyl glucosinolate (glucoraphanin) and 4- (methylsulfinyl)-3-butenyl glucosinolate (glucoraphenin) are the most predominant GLs in the root and seeds of R. sativus (Daxenbichler et al, 1991; Carlson et al, 1985). These GLs on hydrolysis by myrosinase yield MTBITC, sulforaphane and sulforaphene respectively. GLs are not uniformly distributed and are highest in the distal end of the root, decreasing in upper root sections with the lowest level in vegetative tops (Esaki and Onozaki, 1980). Apart from GLs and their breakdown products, R. sativus also contains polyphenolics such as phenolic acid, flavonoids and anthocyanins. Several polyphenolic compounds including sinapic acid esters and kaempferol were isolated from R. sativus sprouts (Takaya et al, 2003). Twelve acylated anthocyanins (pelargonidin) were isolated from R. sativus red variety (Otsuki et al, 2002). Phytochemical screening showed the presence of other phytochemicals such as triterpenes, alkaloids, saponins and coumarins in R. sativus seeds (Mohamed et al, 2008). The myrosinase catalyzed hydrolysis of glucosinolates. (Adapted from Rusk et al, 2000) Novel classes of plant defensins (small basic cysteine rich peptides) such as Raphanus sativus antifungal peptide 1 and 2 (RsAFP1 and RsAFP2) were isolated from the seeds of R. sativus (Terras et al, 1992a). RsAFP1 and RsAFP2 are highly basic oligomeric proteins composed of small (5 KDa) polypeptides that are rich in cysteine. Both RsAFP1 and RsAFP2 have a broad spectrum antifungal activity and show a high degree of specificity to filamentous fungi (Terras et al, 1992b). They are active against both phytopathogenic fungi such as Fusarium culmorum and Botrytis cinerea (Terras et al, 1992b), human pathogenic fungi such as Candida albicans (Aerts et al, 2007) and occasionally possess antibacterial activity. However, they are non-toxic to humans and plant cells. R. sativus 2S storage albumins were identified as second novel class of antifungal protein (Terras et al, 1992a). They also inhibit the growth of different plant pathogenic fungi and certain bacteria (Terras et al, 1992a). At least eight distinguishable isoperoxidases were isolated and purified to apparent homogeneity from Korean R sativus roots. Among them are two cationic isoperoxidases such as C1 and C3 and four anionic isoperoxidases such as A1, A2, A3n and A3 (Lee and Kim, 1994). Plant peroxidases play an important role in several physiological functions such as removal of peroxide, oxidation of indole-3-acetic acid and toxic reductants, wound healing and cell wall biosynthesis (Hammerschmidt et al, 1982). Further, peroxidase represents an important component of an early response in plants to pathogen attack and plays a key role in the biosynthesis of lignin, which limits the extent of pathogen spread (Bruce and West, 1989). The products of this enzyme in the presence of a hydrogen donor and hydrogen peroxide have antimicrobial activity and even antiviral activity (Van Loon and Callow, 1983). Recently, a novel heme peroxidase intrinsically resistant to H2O2 was isolated from R. sativus (Japanese d aikon), which showed relatively stronger oxidative stability than that of reference horse radish peroxidase (HRPA2) (Rodrà ­guez et al, 2008). Biological activities of R. sativus Evidence from numerous investigations reveals that the biological and pharmacological functions of R. sativus are mainly due to its GLs and its breakdown products ITCs (Esaki and Onozaki, 1982; Nakamura et al 2001; Barillari et al, 2006; Papi et al, 2008). These compounds provide to R. sativus its characteristic odor and flavor as well as most of their biological properties. GLs and/or ITCs have long been known for their fungicidal, bacteriocidal, nematocidal and allelopathic properties (Brown et al, 1991) and have attracted intense research interest because of their cancer chemoprotective attributes (Fahey et al, 2001; Verhoeven et al, 1997). Polyphenolics, alkaloids, saponins, isoperoxidases and antifungal peptides are also accountable for significant part of the health benefits of R. sativus. These constituents are reported to exhibit several biological effects, including radical scavenging activity (Takaya et al, 2003), gut stimulatory, uterotonic and spasmogenic effects (Gilani and Ghayur, 2004; Ghayur and Gilani, 2005), anti-hyperlipidemic activity (Wang et al, 2002) and anti-atherogenic effects (Suh et al, 2006) and would perhaps work synergistically with GLSs and ITCs of R. sativus. Antioxidant activity Damage to proteins, lipids and DNA by reactive oxygen species (ROS) and reactive nitrogen species (RNS) can lead to a variety of chronic diseases such as cancer, cardiovascular, inflammatory and age-related neurodegenerative diseases (Borek, 1997; Richardson, 1993). ROS/RNS can damage cell membranes, disrupt enzymes, reduce immunity (Ahsan et al, 2003) and induce mutations (Loft and Poulsen, 1996). ROS/RNS are by-products of normal aerobic metabolism and could occur during mitochondrial/microsomal electron transport chain, phagocytic activity or generated from oxidase enzymes and transition metal ions (Nohl et al, 2003; Aruoma et al, 1989). Other sources of ROS/RNS are environmental factors such as pollution, sun damage, cigarette smoke or even some kinds of the foods (Schroder and Krutmann, 2004). These reactive species and the resulting oxidative damages are usually counteracted by the antioxidant defense mechanisms (Bagchi and Puri, 1998). Recent studies evidence that plant-based diets, particularly those rich in vegetables and fruits, provide a considerable amount of antioxidant phytochemicals such as vitamins C and E, glutathione, polyphenolics, sulfur containing compounds and pigments, which offer protection against cellular damage (Dimitrios, 2006). Vitamins Ascorbic acid is found to be the most effective antioxidant in inhibiting lipid peroxidation initiated by a peroxyl radical initiator among several types of antioxidants including a-tocopherol (Fei et al, 1989). Ascorbic acid is also capable of scavenging hydrogen peroxide, singlet oxygen, superoxide and hydroxyl radicals efficiently (Fei et al, 1989). It is also involved in the regeneration and recycling of tocopherols and ß-carotene (Niki et al, 1995). Numerous studies have shown that ascorbic acid is effective in lowering the risk of developing cancers (Block, 1991) and cardiovascular diseases (Trout, 1991). In spite of the overwhelming evidence on the health benefits, however, there are reports that demonstrated the pro-oxidant activity of ascorbic acid (Podmore, 1998). Tocopherols are essential vitamins with their major role as antioxidants in protecting polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) and other components of cell membranes and low-density lipoprotein (LDL) from oxidation , thereby preventing the onset of heart diseases (Rimm et al, 1993). Polyphenolics Polyphenolics is an extremely comprehensive phrase that covers many different subgroups of phenols and phenolic acids. These compounds are most commonly present in fruits and vegetables. They are essential to the physiology of plants, being involved in diverse functions such as lignification, pigmentation, pollination, allelopathy, pathogen/predator resistance and growth (Haslam, 1996). Polyphenolics include single-ring structure such as hydroxybenzoic acids and hydroxycinnamic acids and multi-ring structure such as flavonoids, which can be further classified into anthocyanins, flavan-3-ols, flavones, flavanones and flavonols. Some of the flavonoids such as flavan-3-ols can be found in their dimeric, trimeric and polymeric forms. Most of the polyphenolics are often associated or conjugated with sugar moieties that further complicate the polyphenolic profile of vegetables. Polyphenolics are especially important as antioxidants, because they have high redox potentials, which permit the m to act as reducing agents, hydrogen donors, singlet oxygen quenchers and metal chelator (Kahkonen et al, 1999) and alleviate free radical mediated cellular injury (Shahidi and Wanasundara, 1992). The antioxidant ability of individual polyphenolics may differ, but, as a group, they are one of the strongest groups of antioxidants. The antioxidant activity of a polyphenolic compound is chiefly determined by its structure, in particular the electron delocalization over an aromatic nucleus (Tsao and Akhtar, 2005). When these compounds react with a free radical, delocalization of the gained electron over the phenolic antioxidant and the stabilization of the aromatic nucleus by the resonance effect take place that prevent the continuation of the free radical-mediated chain reaction (Tsao and Akhtar, 2005). Sulfur-containing compounds GLs are a group of sulfur-containing compounds found in the cruciferous plants such as R. sativus, broccoli, cabbage, mustard, wasabi etc. These compounds are found to be strong antioxidants, which are indeed through activation of detoxification enzyme mechanisms for the efficient removal of xenobiotics, rather than through direct radical scavenging capability (Zhang and Talalay, 1998). This property of GLs and its hydrolysis products ITCs is considered as one of the major contributors to its anti-cancer activity (Zhang and Talalay, 1998). Antioxidant activity of R. sativus R. sativus is one of the major sources of dietary phenolic acids and flavonoids, which are mostly present as sugar conjugates (Takaya et al, 2003). The major phenolic acids found in R. sativus sprout are sinapic acid and ferulic acid, which are present in conjugated form as 1-sinapoyl-1-ß-D-glucopyranoside, ß-D-(3-sinapoyl) frucofuranosyl -a-D-(6-sinapoyl) glucopyranoside and 1-feruloyl-ß-D-glucopyranoside (Takaya et al, 2003). The major flavonoids present in R. sativus sprouts is kaempferol that occurs in a conjugated form as kaempferol-3,7-O- a-L-dirhamnopyranoside and kaempferol-3-O- a-L-rhamnopyranosyl-(1-4)- ß-D-glucopyranoside (Takaya et al, 2003). Lugasi et al (1998) demonstrated the strong antioxidant property of squeezed juice extracted from a black R. sativus root through its ability to donate electrons, chelate metal ions and scavenge free radicals in a H2O2/ ·OH-luminol system. Since HPLC analysis revealed the presence of a considerable amount of GLs degradation products and polyphenols in the squeezed juice of black R. sativus, antioxidant activity of black R. sativus root could be attributed to these compounds. Takaya et al (2003) tested methanolic extracts from 11 different plants including Daikon R. sativus sprouts for their ability to scavenge free radicals. Daikon R. sativus sprouts proved to be the most potent, almost 1.8 times more effective than Vitamin C. Souri et al (2004) studied the antioxidant activity of 26 commonly used vegetables in Iranian diet and found that methanolic extract of R. sativus leaf significantly inhibited the peroxidation of linoleic acid as compared to standard antioxidant such as a-tocopherol and quercetin. Katsuzaki et al (2004) found that hot water extract of Daikon R. sativus extract showed more significant antioxidant activity than the extract obtained at an ambient temperature. L-tryptophan was isolated and identified as the compound responsible for the antioxidant activity. They also found that L-tryptophan changed to 5-hydroxy tryptophan (5-HTP), a precursor to serotonin in the rat liver microsome model system. A plant-based 5-HTP supplement is popular for its anti-depressant, appetite suppressant and sleep aiding properties. Lugasi et al (2005) further demonstrated that squeezed juice from black R. sativus significantly alleviated the free radical reaction in rats with hyperlipidaemia by decreasing the lipid peroxidation reactions and by improving the antioxidant status. Recent study also showed that R. sativus extract reduced the extent of lipid peroxidation in a dose dependent manner in rat liver homogenate treated with cumene hydroperoxide by increasing the levels of reduced glutathione and thereby protecting the liver from the toxin induced oxidative damages (Chaturvedi, 2008). Salah-Abbes et al (2008a) showed the protective effect of Tunisian R. sativus root extract against toxicity induced by zearalenone in mice by virtue of its ability to alleviate oxidative stress through stimulation and improvement of the antioxidant status. Polyphenolics in R. sativus may act in a synergistic or additive manner with GLs and/or ITCs and exert their antioxidant activity through inhibition of lipid peroxidation, enhancing the cellular antioxidant enzymes and increasing the glutathione in the cells. Apart from these phytochemicals, R. sativus also contain several classes of peroxidases that could play a significant role in the elimination of toxic peroxides and thus reduce the impact of free radical mediated cellular injury (Wang et al, 2002). Antimicrobial activity Infectious diseases are the worlds leading cause of untimely death, killing approximately 50,000 people every year. Bacteria have a remarkable ability to develop resistance to most pharmaceutical antibiotics. An increase in such antibiotic-resistant bacteria are menacing the human population with a recurrence of infectious diseases that were once thought to be under control, at least in developed countries (Pinner et al, 1996). These antibiotic-resistant bacteria have also caused unique problems in treating infections in patients with cancer and AIDS (Dennesen et al, 1998). Since tenacious and virulent bacteria develop immunity to solitary antibiotics at an alarming speed, there is an imperative need for a holistic targeted approach to search for novel antimicrobials from natural sources, especially from plant kingdom. Long before mankind ascertained the existence of microbes, the fact that certain plants had therapeutic potential was very well accepted. Since ancient times, man has used plants as the widespread remedial tool to treat common infectious diseases. Some of these traditional medicines are still included as part of the habitual treatment of various maladies. Bearberry (Arctostaphylos uva-ursi) and cranberry juice (Vaccinium macrocarpon) are employed to treat urinary tract infections, while species such as lemon balm (Melissa officinalis), garlic (Allium sativum) and tee tree (Melaleuca alternifolia) are described as broad-spectrum antimicrobial agents (Heinrich et al, 2004). Plant based antimicrobials represent a vast unexploited source for medicines, which need to be explored further. They have an immense therapeutic potential as they are effectual in the treatment of infectious diseases while concomitantly alleviating many of the side effects that are frequently connected with synthetic antimicrobials (Cowan, 1999). Plant based anti-infective agents generally have manifold effects on the body and often act beyond the symptomatic treatment of the infectious diseases. Plants have a virtually unlimited capacity to produce secondary metabolites, especially for their defense against predation by microorganisms, insects and herbivores. Many of these secondary metabolites give plants their characteristic odors and also responsible for plant pigments. Antimicrobial phytochemicals are divided into several categories based on their structural similarity as follows: Phenolic acids These are the simplest bioactive phytochemicals consisting of a single substituted phenolic ring. Cinnamic acid and caffeic acids are the common representatives of this group. Phenolic acids are reported to be effective against viruses (Wild, 1994), bacteria (Brantner et al, 1996) and fungi (Duke, 1985). The number and site of the hydroxyl group on the phenol structure are considered to be related to their relative toxicity to microorganisms. Phenolic acids which are in the higher oxidized state are often more inhibitory towards microorganisms than the one with the lower oxidation state (Scalbert, 1991). Thus the mechanisms thought to be responsible for the antimicrobial activity of phenolic acid could include enzyme inhibition by the oxidized compound through interaction with SH groups or through nonspecific interaction with the microbial proteins (Mason and Wasserman, 1987). Quinones They are aromatic compounds with two ketone substitutions in the phenolic ring. They are ubiquitous in nature and show general antimicrobial properties (Duke, 1997). They are extremely active as they can switch between hydroquinone and quinone through oxidation/reduction reactions. Quinones bind with proteins irreversibly, leading to inactivation of proteins and loss of function (Stern et al, 1996). They may also make substrates unavailable to the microbes. Flavonoids They are phenolic structures containing hydroxyl groups. They are ubiquitous and are commonly found in fruits, vegetables, nuts, tea, wine, honey, etc. They are known to be effective antimicrobial compounds against a wide variety of microorganisms (Cushnie and Lamb, 2005). Catechins are the most extensively researched flavonoids for their possible antimicrobial activity due to their occurrence in green tea (Toda et al, 1989). Flavonoids have the ability to complex with extracellular proteins as well as with bacterial cell walls, rendering them inactive (Cushnie and Lamb, 2005). More lipophilic flavonoids may also have the ability to disrupt microbial membrane (Tsuchiya et al, 1996). Terpenoids and essential oils Essential oils are secondary metabolites that are highly supplemented in compounds based on an isoprene structure (Cowan, 1999). They are called as terpenes and usually occur as di, tri, tetra, hemi and sesquiterpenes. When the compounds contain extra elements such as oxygen, they are called as terpenoids. Camphor, farnesol, artemisin and capsaicin are the common examples of terpenoids. Terpenes and terpenoids are active against an array of bacteria (Habtemariam et al, 1993) and fungi (Rana et al, 1997). Previous research showed that terpenoids present in the essential oils of plants could be useful in the control of Listeria monocytogenes (Aureli et al, 1992). The mechanism action of terpenes is not yet established precisely, but is speculated to be due to the disruption of bacterial cell membrane by the lipophilic terpenoids (Mendoza et al, 1997). Alkaloids Alkaloids constitute large groups of compounds containing a nitrogen atom in a heterocyclic ring, with a broad range of biological activities. The first medically functional alkaloid was morphine isolated from Papaver somniferum (Fessenden and Fessenden, 1982). Alkaloids are generally found to have potent antimicrobial activity (Ghoshal et al, 1996). Solamargine, a glycoalkaloid from the berries of Solanum khasianum reported to be useful against HIV infection and intestinal infections associated with AIDS (McMahon et al, 1995). Berberine is an important and frequently studied member of the alkaloid group. It is potentially efficient against trypanosomes (Freiburghaus et al, 1996) and plasmodial infections (Wright et al, 1992). The mode of action responsible for the antimicrobial activity of alkaloids may be attributed to their ability to intercalate with DNA and arresting the metabolic activity of the bacterial cells (Phillipson and ONeill, 1987). Sulfur-containing compounds Sulfur-containing compounds encompass a wide array of compounds and usually found in the plants as glucosides (glucosinolates, alliin, etc). These glucosides, during the rupturing of the plant cell wall, are hydrolyzed into volatile sulfur compounds such as ITCs, allicin, allyl sulfide, diallyl disulfate, etc. Biological activity of sulfur-containing compounds is considered to be chiefly due to glucoside degradation products, as intact glucosides usually display much fewer biological activities than their subsequent hydrolysis products (Donkin et al, 1995). The mechanism of action responsible for the antimicrobial activity of sulfur-containing compounds varies. Antimicrobial activity of ITCs, degradation products of GLs, is thought to be related to its NCS group, in which the central carbon atom is highly electrophilic, which could interact irreversibly with

Transcending Herbert Marcuse on Alienation, Art and the Humanities Essa

Transcending Herbert Marcuse on Alienation, Art and the Humanities (1) ABSTRACT: This paper discusses how higher education can help us in accomplishing our humanization. It looks at the critical educational theory of Herbert Marcuse, and examines his notion of the dis-alienating power of the aesthetic imagination. In his view, aesthetic education can become the foundation of a re-humanizing critical theory. I question the epistemological underpinnings of Marcuse's educational philosophy and suggest an alternative intellectual framework for interpreting and releasing the emancipatory power of education. "Truth is ugly. We possess art lest we perish of the truth." Friedrich Nietzsche, The Will to Power #822 What is the relationship of truth to beauty, learning to art, political education to human flourishing? Philosophers from Confucius and Aristotle to John Dewey and Paulo Freire have investigated, as the axial human problem, how education is to help us in accomplishing our own humanization. The contemporary search for a genuinely critical theory and an authentically democratic society continues that project. But what can make theory critical, education liberating, society democratic? It is necessary to theorize our society critically if we are to have a vehicle for correctly informed transformative practice. The problem is that much of what is called critical theory today is rooted in ideas developed by Herbert Marcuse, Max Horkheimer, Theodor W. Adorno, and Georg Lukacs. What I want to argue here is that their work has tended to formulate a particular approach to aesthetic educationand a unique version of a philosophical humanismwhich is then presented as critical theoryagainst the debilitating fragmentation ... ...88); Jurgen Habermas, "Von Lukacs zu Adorno: Rationalisierung als Verdinglichung," in Theorie des kommunikativen HandelnsBand I (Fft: Suhrkamp, 1981). (4) Karl Marx, Das Kapital(Stuttgart: Alfred Kroener Verlag, 1965) p. 52. (5) Aeron Haynie, Imperialism and the Construction of Femininity in Mid-Victorian Fiction(Gainesville: University of Florida, Ph.D. dissertation, 1994). (6) Martin Heidegger in Marcuse's notes to seminar, "Heidegger, Einfuhrung in das akademische Studium. Sommer 1929" Herbert Marcuse Archiv of the Stadt- und Universit. tsbibliothek, Frankfurt, Catalog # 0013.01, p. 6. Works Cited 1941 RR Reason and Revolution, Hegel and the Rise of Social Theory (Boston:Beacon, 1960). 1972 CR Counterrevolution and Revolt (Boston: Beacon, 1972). 1978 AD The Aesthetic Dimension, Toward a Critique of Marxist Aesthetics (Boston: Beacon, 1978).