Evolution of Orangutans Essay Example for Free

Evolution of Orangutans Essay Orangutans are apes with reddish-brown hair that originated 2 million-100,000 years ago. Orangutans are categorized the Hominidae family, which is commonly known as the Great Apes. Orangutans live in Asia, only found on the islands of Sumatra and Borneo. They are known for their long arms which can reach to a length of 7m, fingertip to fingertip (See Appendix A, Fig. 1). There is no real evidence of who the orangutan’s ancestors were. The primate lineage was thought to start 65 million years ago; this began as the Euarchonta which lead to the primates present today(See Appendix A, Fig. ). Primates were divided into two groups called Strepsirrhines, which included lemurs and lories, and Haplorhines, which included tarsiers, monkeys, and apes. After 35 million years, the Haplorhines split into another two groups called Platyrrhini, which included the New World monkeys of South and Central America, and the Catharinni, the Old World monkeys of Africa and Asia, and apes. About 10-15 million years after that, the group split into two superfamillies called Cercopithecoidea which includes Old World monkeys, and Hominoidea, which includes apes. Some researchers say that the orangutan originated from Lufengpithecus, while others say that they originated from Sivapithecus. Lufengpithecus has four species; Lufengpithecus lufengensis, Lufengpithecus hudienensis, Lufengpithecus keiyuanensis and Lufengpithecus chiangmuanensis. Lufengpithecus lufengenis fossil was found in lignite beds at the Shihuiba Locality in Lufeng County, Yunnan, China. It was thought to represent Sivapithecus because of the similarities between the species. The Lufengpithecus chiangmuanensis fossil, that dates back 10-13. million years ago, was discovered not long ago in Thailand. Researchers think that the Lufengpithecus chiangmuanensis is the closest to the orangutan because of the shape of its jaw, and because it was found in Thailand near where the orangutans live today. But there is no true evidence that the Lufengpithecus is the ancestor of the orangutan by just looking at their face structure and where it was found (See Appendix A, Fig. 3). Sivapithecus lived in the woodlands of Central Asia 8-12. million years ago. It was about 5 feet long, weighing about 50-75 pounds. It had feet like a chimpanzee and it had a diet of plants with large canines. The large canines were used to eat tough tubers and stems rather than fruits. This species was when early primates came down from trees and started to explore the grasslands. Other than it’s chimpanzee like feet, its face resembled an orangutan (See Appendix A, Fig. 4). Sivapithecus mainly lived on the ground because of the size of their body. One of the things that a Sivapithecus could do is walk standing upright like a human. Standing upright for a Sivapithecus wasnt so easy as they didnt always have balance when using their hind limbs so they used their forearms to help. Walking vertically helped the Sivapithecus by walking on the ground rather than climbing trees, so they didnt need to use the trees to move around.. Walking on the ground might not have been an option because there were some areas that didnt have a lot of vegetation. As the continents were drifting apart, there was a decrease in vegetation. This was an environmental pressure for the Sivapithecus because it made them rely on their hind limbs to move around the area. Sivapithecus was so flexible that it made it easier to swing and climb trees. The extension and stable joints in their body gave them a huge advantage and helped them in the ability of hanging and swinging around in trees. There isn’t a lot of information about the ancestors of the orangutan and how it evolved because there isn’t enough evidence. Some researchers say the Lufengpithecus is the ancestor and some say the Sivapithecus is, but no one is absolutely sure if either of those two species are the actual ancestors of the orangutan. Just like the species Lufengpithecus chiangmuanensis, which was discovered about 8 or 9 years ago, there may be a species not yet discovered and it might be the orangutan’s ancestor. From what researchers found, they don’t fully know how the orangutan evolved.

Environmental Change and Infectious Diseases Relationship

Environmental Change and Infectious Diseases Relationship Changes in the natural environment through human activities will have broad impacts on global health and human habitation. The links between rapid environmental change and novel pathogens suggest we are entering a new transition in the history of emerging infectious disease. Scientists, however, have not reached consensus regarding an increase of emerging infectious diseases under the broad conditions of environmental change and climate change. This is an area of intense scientific scrutiny. An emerging infectious disease [EID] is one that that has newly appeared in a population or that has been known for some time but is rapidly increasing in incidence or geographic range. Familiar examples include Influenza, E. coli, HIV, SARS, Tuberculosis, Dengue Fever, West Nile Virus, but there are many others. Influenza is the most common. This bibliographic essay focuses on the emergence of novel pathogens, highlighting areas of scientific agreement as well as controversy. These selections can serve as a guide for the informed general reader as well as for health professionals. They draw from international books, articles and websites that provide the most engaging histories, authoritative sources, and current information. The themes in this essay begin with broad topics and become increasing more specific. These EID themes include: Microbes through History; Past Pandemics; Zoonoses focus on Avian Influenza; Ecological Factors; Links to Climate Change; Public Health Preparedness Strategies; Impacts on National Security; and Strategies for the Future. Emerging Infectious Disease Microbes through History The first known texts related to infectious disease were part of the Hippocratic corpus written in the fourth and third centuries B.C.E. Airs, Waters, Places was on environmental health and On Epidemics contains descriptions of contagious and other diseases of public health importance during the ancient period. These texts appear in Hippocratic Writings, edited by G.E.R. Lloyd. The epidemiological transition model describes the changing relationship between humans and their diseases. Based on this model, the first transition occurred with the shift to agriculture about 10,000 YBP, resulting in a pattern of infectious diseases still evident today. In The Changing Disease-Scape in the Third Epidemiological Transition, Kristin Harper and George Armelagos, medical anthropologists, propose that during the last two centuries, some populations have undergone a second transition with a decline in infectious disease and rise in degenerative disease. The authors maintain that we are now in a third epidemiological transition, in which a resurgence of familiar infections is accompanied by an array of novel diseases, all of which have the potential to spread rapidly. Several books and articles are appropriate for historians and medical researchers. Lois Magner, a distinguished medical historian, produced a comprehensive and up-to-date account of the development of medical microbiology. In A History of Infectious Diseases and the Microbial World, the author places modern infectious diseases within their historical context, and highlights the links between disease and social, cultural, political, and economic factors. In Deadly Companions: How Microbes Shaped our History, Dorothy Crawford combines tales of epidemics with science and history. Crawford is Professor of Medical Microbiology at the University of Edinburgh. She reveals how microbes have evolved with humans over the millennia, shaping civilizations through infection, disease, and pandemic. In Conquest of Epidemic Disease: a Chapter in the History of Ideas, Charles-Edward Amory Winslow traces the human understanding of the causes and control of epidemic communicable diseases. Winslow had a rich knowledge of public health, history, and philosophy. According to Joshua Lederberg, molecular biologist and Nobel Prize winner, the success of the wonder drugs of the 1950s led many to believe that the war on microbes had been fought and won, but the emergence of new infectious agents shattered that illusion. Infectious History is a very engaging global history of the cohabitation of humanity and microbes. Ultimate survival, Lederberg suggests, may require humans to embrace a more microbial point of view, in which microbes and their human hosts constitute a superorganism. In a related argument, the Mirage of Health: Utopias, Progress, and Biological Change by Renà © J. Dubos emphasizes that the process of living cannot be separated from the disease process. The book is primarily concerned with the limitations of medicine in the search for the solution of health problems. Dubos, a microbiologist and environmentalist, argues that humankind should not ignore the dynamic process of adaptation to a constantly changing environment that ever y living organism must face. A. J. McMichael, a notable expert on the environment and emerging infectious disease, reports similar conclusions in Environmental and Social Influences on Emerging Infectious Diseases: Past, Present and Future. McMichael urges that humankind come to terms with the fact that microbial species help to make up the interdependent system of life on Earth. He claims that humans and microbes are engaged in amoral, self-interested, co-evolutionary struggle. Pandemics from the Past There are several books on pandemic disease that would appeal to historians and medical professionals. Historians Tamara Giles-Vernick and Susan Craddock edited Influenza and Public Health, an investigation of past influenza pandemics with insights into possible transmission patterns, experiences, mistakes, and interventions. It explores several pandemics over the past century including the infamous 1918 Spanish Influenza, the avian flu epidemic of 2003, and the novel H1N1 pandemic of 2009. In Dread: How Fear and Fantasy have Fueled Epidemics from the Black Death to Avian Flu by Philip Alcabes a writer and professor of Urban Public Health, writes in an engaging style with comprehensive literary, historical and medical references. For readers interested in the history of great plagues and pandemics, there are a number of recommended books. John H. Powells Bring out Your Dead: The Great Plague of Yellow Fever in Philadelphia in 1793 is a historical account of the impact of a yellow fever epidemic that claimed the lives of over 10 percent of the population of Philadelphia and caused its virtual evacuation. Plagues and Peoples by historian William H. McNeill provides an account of the impact of epidemic diseases on the rise and fall of civilizations. Laurie Garretts The Coming Plague: Newly Emerging Diseases in a World out of Balance is an engaging survey of new and emerging infections the chapter on future history is especially good. There is a bit of good news among the gloom. Scientists from the National Institute of Health (David Morens, Jeffery Taubenberger, and Anthony Fauci) suggest that successive pandemics generally appear to be decreasing in severity over time. This reflects viral evolution that favors optimal transmissibility with minimal pathogenicity. However, the scientists suggest it is important to understand in greater depth the determinants and dynamics of the pandemic era in which we live. In related research, NIH researchers reported in the New England Journal of Medicine (Miller et al.) that the signature features of past pandemics can help health authorities prioritize national strategies and provide aid to international collaborators. Zoonoses Case Study in Avian Influenza The incidence and frequency of epidemic transmission of zoonotic diseases, both known and newly recognized, has increased dramatically in the past 30 years. It is thought that this dramatic disease emergence is primarily the result of the social, demographic, and environmental transformation that has occurred globally. Most human pathogens also circulate in animals or originate in nonhuman hosts. Influenza is a classic example of a zoonotic infection that transmits from animals to humans. Smith et al., scientists from the Georgia Institute of Ecology, report that infectious agents specific to humans are broadly and uniformly distributed, whereas zoonotic infectious agents are far more localized in their geographical distribution. These results have critical implications for public-health policy and future research pathways of infectious disease ecology. As reported in Epidemic Dynamics at the Human-Animal Interface. Lloyd-Smith et al., maintain that understanding zoonoses requires a new generation of models that addresses a broader set of pathogen life histories and integrates across scientific disciplines. Outbreaks of pathogenic avian influenza have been relatively uncommon around the world in the last 50 years with limited spread within a country or region. There is one major exception, Asian lineage H5N1 that was first identified in 1996. According to David Suarez, a researcher with the U.S.D.A., this lineage of virus has spread to over 60 countries and has become endemic in poultry in at least four countries. As reported in Avian influenza: our current Understanding, this virus represents a public health threat, with some infected humans having severe disease and a high case fatality rate. Suarez maintains that it is a difficult disease to control because of its highly infectious nature and the interface of domestic and wild animals. Influenza surveillance in wild birds has established that the aquatic birds of the world are the source of influenza A viruses, which occasionally spread to domestic avian species and to mammals, including humans. In Avian Influenza Virus Surveillance and Wild Birds: Past and Present, Scott Krauss and Robert Webster report that much more attention has been given to understanding the ecology of influenza in wild aquatic birds. Robert Webster has been cited in over 400 articles on the influenza virus, particularly its link to wild birds. At Qinghai Lake in China, migrating birds are being tracked by satellite, part of a series of investigations that began after highly pathogenic avian influenza (H5N1 subtype) first swept the region in 2005. The studies are attempting to pinpoint the viral reservoir and the role that wild birds play in transmission. L. Jiao reports results in In Chinas Backcountry, Tracking Lethal Bird Flu that no reservoir for the virus has yet been found, but transmission routes have come into clearer focus. However, in another scientific report, New Avian Influenza Virus (H5N1) in Wild Birds, Qinghai, China, scientist Yanbing Li reports that in 2010 the virus mutated into yet another viral subtype. This occurred in a wetland region very close to Qinghai Lake. This increases concerns about a potential pandemic and the likelihood that avian influenza virus will again spread and continue to increase its genetic diversity. Scientists stress that determining movements of wild birds from Qinghai Lake is essential to track H5N1. Wallenstein et al. investigated the transmission of H5N1 among people who had unprotected contact with infected wild mute swans in Dorset, England. Results in No evidence of transmission of H5N1 highly pathogenic avian influenza to humans after unprotected contact with infected wild swans reveal that no evidence of transmission of H5N1 to humans was found. The incident provided a rare opportunity to study the direct transmissibility of the virus from wild birds to humans. Emerging Infectious Disease Ecological Phenomena Ecological approaches to the understanding of health and disease have a long history. The links between the environment and health are complex and can occur over long time scales that obscure those connections. Emerging zoonotic diseases have assumed increasing importance in both public and animal health, as the last few years have seen a steady increase of new cases, each emerging from an unsuspected geographic area and causing serious problems, often leading to mortalities among animals and humans. Investigating these pathogens as ecological phenomena can provide insights into why these pathogens have jumped species. In a highly recommended article by Samuel Myers and Jonathan Patz, Emerging Threats to Humans from Global Environmental Change, the scientists assert that changes to the natural environment are all accelerating with increased exposure to infectious disease. The authors maintain that these threats represent the greatest public health challenge humanity has faced. In Environmental Determinants of Infectious Disease, Joseph Eisenburg concludes that emerging and re-emerging pathogens have their origin in environmental change. However, in Causal Inference in Disease Ecology: Investigating Ecological Drivers of Disease Emergence, Raina Plowright maintains that few studies have rigorously analyzed the underlying environmental drivers of disease emergence. As an expert on ecological drivers of disease, Plowright reports that ecological change and disease emerge from complex, large-scale processes that are not amenable to traditional approaches to causal inference. Emerging Infectious Disease Links to Climate Change Paul Epstein of Harvard School of Public Health and been sounding the warning bell on climate change and infectious disease for over 10 years. In Climate Change and Emerging Infectious Disease he presented a theory that deforestation and climatic volatility are a potent combination creating conditions conducive to disease emergence and spread. In Primary, Secondary and Tertiary Effects of Eco-Climate Change: The Medical Response, Colin Butler and David Harley propose that the primary effects of climate change to global health include the acute and chronic stress of heat waves, and trauma from increased fires and flooding. Secondary signs are indirect, such as an altered distribution of vectors, intermediate hosts and pathogens. More severe future health consequences of climate change are classified here as tertiary effects: famine, war and significant population displacement. There is near unanimous scientific consensus that greenhouse gas emissions generated by human activity will change Earths climate. Yet, there is little hard evidence that recent global warming has already affected some health outcomes. Researchers, A.J. McMichael, Rosalie Woodruff, and Simon Hales, suggest in Climate Change and human health: present and future risks, that anticipation of adverse health effects will strengthen the case for pre-emptive policies and guide priorities for planned adaptive strategies. In a related argument in Climate Change and Infectious Disease in North America: the Road Ahead, researchers Amy Greer, Victoria Ng and David Fisman recommend that the best defense against increases in infectious disease related to climate change lies in strengthening existing public health infrastructure. In Biodiversity Loss Affects Global Disease Ecology, Montira J. Pongsiri et al. propose that climate change is a phenomenon that will require a biogeographic perspective to predict its affect on global disease. Currently, biogeography and disease ecology are disciplinary communities with little overlap. Not all scientists agree on climate change and emerging infectious disease. In The Ecology of Climate Change and Infectious Disease, Kevin Lafferty claims that although the globe is significantly warmer than it was a century ago, there is little evidence that climate change has favored infectious diseases. Lafferty reports that recent models predict range shifts in disease distributions, with little net increase in area. Researchers Bruce Wilcox and Duane Gubler link demographic and societal factors to land use, land cover change, and ecological factors to disease emergence in Disease Ecology and the Global Emergence of Zoonotic Pathogens. They report that the scale and magnitude of these changes are more significant than those associated with climate change, the effects of which are largely not yet understood. Joshua Rosenthal of the National Institutes of Health reports that the ability to predict the effects of climate change on the spread of infectious diseases is in its infancy. In Climate Change and the geographic distribution of Infectious Disease, the authors report that there are conflicting predictions. Emerging Infectious Disease and Public Health Preparedness In a 2010 report, Infectious Disease Movement in a Borderless World, David Relman and the Institute of Medicine report that infectious diseases (pre-pandemic stage) now emerge more frequently, spread greater distances, pass more easily between humans and animals, and evolve into new and more virulent strains. Literature from the U.S. Institute of Medicine intended for clinicians, researchers, and public policy makers includes The Impact of globalization on infectious disease emergence and control exploring the consequences and opportunities by Stacey Knobler. Keith Fukuda and The World Health Organization released Ethical considerations developing a public health response to pandemic influenza. A product of expert international opinion, this publication is intended for public health and pandemic influenza preparedness activities at the national level. In Communicating about Emerging Infectious Disease: the Importance of Research, Bev Holmes reviews risk communication strategies for e merging infectious diseases. In The Generic Biothreat, Or, How we became Unprepared, sociologist Andrew Lakoff argues that over the course of the past three decades, a new way of thinking about the threat of infectious disease has coalesced. The problem of infectious disease is no longer only one of prevention, but one of preparedness. Jonathan D. Moreno, professor of Medical Ethics, wrote In the Wake of Terror: Medicine and the Morality in a Time of Crisis, a book intended for public health policymakers. He maintains that responses to bioterrorism and emerging infectious diseases of the twenty-first century are destined to overwhelm the public health system. Emerging Infectious Disease and National Security In Contagion and Chaos, Andrew Price-Smith offers an examination of disease through the lens of national security. This book will be of interest to political scientists and those in public health and medicine as it highlights the interdependence between political science and public health. The author stresses that the association between the health of a population and perception of national security is ancient but largely forgotten. He argues that epidemic disease represents a direct threat to the power of a state, eroding prosperity and destabilizing both its internal politics and its relationships with other states. The danger of an infectious pathogen to national security depends on lethality, transmissability, fear, and economic damage. The author maintains that warfare and ecological change contribute to the spread of disease and act as disease amplifiers. Strategies for the Future There are several valuable data collection tools and collaboration networks in existence. To be useful, data must assist in the effort to identify population-based strategies for pandemics. Advance knowledge of which subpopulations are most likely at increased risk can lead to quicker public health response and disease control. Lessons from the past would suggest that public health preparedness include human health surveillance that is integrated with monitoring of climate and other environmental conditions that favor emerging infectious disease. In an important work by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (Jeremy Hess, Josephine Mililay and Alan Parkinson), scientists considered the ways in which the concept of place the sense of human relationship with particular environments will play a key role in motivating, developing, and deploying an effective public health response. In Climate Change: the Importance of Place, they highlight the concepts of community resilience and risk management, key aspects of a robust response to climate change in public health and other sectors. Mark Woolhouse, faculty at University of Edinburgh in infectious disease epidemiology, reports in Emerging Diseases go Global that novel human infections continue to appear all over the world, but the risk is higher in some regions than others. Identification of emerging-disease hotspots will help target surveillance work. In Global trends in emerging infectious diseases, Kate E. Jones et al. provide a basis for identifying regions where new EIDs are most likely to originate (emerging disease hotspots). Currently, they claim that global resources to counter disease emergence are poorly allocated the majority of the surveillance effort is focused on countries from where the next important EID is least likely to originate. John Brownstein, a medical informatics researcher, reports that the existing network of disease surveillance efforts managed by public health institutes has wide gaps in geographic coverage and often suffers from poor and sometimes suppressed information flow across national borders. In Surveillance Sans Frontieres: Internet Based Emerging Infectious Disease Intelligence and HealthMap project, Brownstein reports that valuable information about infectious diseases is found in internet-accessible information sources such as discussion sites and disease reporting networks. These data must be studied in depth, including false reports and reporting bias. Yet, this information holds potential to provide complementary epidemic intelligence context. This potential is already being realized, as a majority of outbreak verifications currently conducted by the World Health Organizations Global Outbreak Alert and Response Network are triggered by reports from these nontraditional sources. Conclusions It is clear that there is a relationship between environmental change and infectious disease, but these links are disease and location specific. Thus, the direct impact on human health is still unclear. Climate change may increase the prevalence of particular infectious diseases in some regions, while decreasing the prevalence in others. Many factors can affect emerging infectious disease, and some of these factors may overshadow the effects of climate. The potential health impacts underscore the need to reinforce response systems for infectious disease outbreaks, including public health preparedness and the capacity necessary to mount effective responses. There is no natural analog to the rapid increases of human-induced environmental changes that are emerging in the 21st century. The links between rapid environmental change and novel pathogens suggest we are entering a new transition in the history of emerging infectious disease.

Interest Groups :: essays research papers

Interest Groups Help More Than Hurt   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Voter turnout has declined since 1960 but participation in interest groups has been growing. Participating in interest groups allows people to take action on issues that are most important to them. Unlike some linkage institutions, interest groups have a very close connection to government. Interest groups are an essential part of the democratic system because they allow the public to enter the political system, bring up specific issues in government, and help congress in various ways.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Interest groups specialize in policies where as interest groups are policy generalists. Statistics show that most Americans are neither radically conservative or liberal but in between or moderate. Both parties have lately tried to conform to the moderate view, but this makes it hard for voters to commit to one party. Many people are split-ticket voters. Both candidates and parties are hard to agree with totally because there are so many different issues. Interest groups give people the chance to support specifically what they care about most. These groups are significant to the democratic system because they allow the public to get involved and in their political system.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Political parties (policy generalists) have a great amount of issues on their agenda to be concerned with while interest groups get to concentrate on a single issue. Interest groups can call attention to an issue that could be ignored otherwise. Since groups know more about specific issues than the government, they can make sure that an issue is not overlooked. Interest groups bring attention to the issues that government should focus on. Thus, the government can determine which issues have priority.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Through interacting with congress, interest groups motivate the House and Senate to concentrate on their issue. The relationship between congress and interest groups is one where both benefit. Groups interact with congress with lobbying, electioneering and litigation. Groups help congress by giving them information, doing research, providing money, helping with political strategy, helping with campaign strategy, or other chores that congressmen do not have time for. Congress, in turn, helps interest groups by supporting their issues in congress.

Kino, a poor Indian fisherman :: essays research papers

Kino, a poor Indian fisherman, lives on the Gulf of California with his wife Juana and son Coyotito. Their simple hut is made of brush, and the couple sleeps on mats thrown on the dirt floor, while Coyotito sleeps in a hanging box. Like others in their poor village, they depend on nature for survival. As The Pearl begins, dawn is breaking. Kino watches the sun rise and listens to the sounds of the morning. But within moments, a dangerous situation develops. A poisonous scorpion stings Coyotito, Kino's infant son, and the baby's screams draw people from all over the village. Juana insists that the doctor be called, but Kino knows the physician is Spanish and considers himself above treating poor Indians. This does not satisfy Juana, who announces that if the doctor will not come to the village, then they will go to his house. But the doctor refuses to treat Coyotito because Kino is too poor. Later that day, while Kino and Juana are fishing in the Gulf, Kino finds an enormous pearl and cries out in joy. He believes the pearl will make him rich and enable him to provide security for his family. But Kino discovers otherwise. The pearl stirs envy in the villagers, and that night Kino is attacked in his hut by a thief. The following day, he tries to sell the pearl to buyers in town, but he is offered only a small amount of money for it. The buyers all work for the same man. They know the pearl is worth a fortune but hope to buy it cheaply by pretending that it is worth little. Kino says he will sell his pearl in the capital city, where he believes he will get a fair price. This amazes the villagers because Kino has never traveled so far. After dark that evening, Kino is attacked again. Juana is sure the pearl is evil and will destroy the family. During the night, she quietly removes it from the spot where Kino has hidden it and tries to throw it back into the ocean. He stops her before she succeeds and beats her for trying. As he returns to the hut, Kino is attacked again, this time by two men. He kills one of them, and the other escapes. Because of the killing, Kino knows that he will be hunted as a murderer. As a result, he and Juana must leave the village the next

The Downfall Of The Middle Ages :: essays research papers

The Downfall of the Middle Ages There were many reasons for the downfall for the Middle Ages, but the most crucial ones were the decline of the feudal system, and the declination of the Church's power over the nation-states. In feudal society, everyone had a definite place and a definite role, with the power resting in the hands of the local lords (instead of a central government). The lords, or nobles, lost power after the Crusades, when the Europeans came into contact with the more advanced civilizations of the Byzantine Empire and the Muslims. That spurred the growth of trade, which in turn gave rise to a money system. The money system in turn caused the birth of a middle class, which didn't fit anywhere into the feudal system. It was made up of the serfs and peasants that left the feudal system in search of making money in trade. For the middle class, the king granted Charters, made a uniform law, started banking, offered protection, and expanded territory. In return, the middle class payed taxes to the king. While t his money economy grew, the feudal lords were put into an economic squeeze. As one may see, that didn't leave much of a place for the nobles, who were rapidly losing power. Another thing that contributed to their loss of power was the enforcement of Common Law, which applied throughout the kingdom.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The effects of the Hundred Years' War hastened the decline of the feudal system. The use of the longbow and firearms made the feudal methods of fighting obsolete. Monarchs replaced feudal soldiers with national armies made up of hired soldiers. Finally, threats to the monarchy decreased as a result of the large number of nobles killed in the war.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Another major factor that contributed to the end of the Middle Ages was the declination of the Church's power over the nation-states. Conflicts between the papacy and the monarchy over political matters resulted people losing faith in the Church. Events like the Babylonian Captivity and the Great Schism further weakened the Church's influence over the peole. Aside from that, people were disgusted at the actions of the corrupt church officials. They would charge the people money for all church services, and they also allowed church positions to be bought. The princely lifestyle of the clergy further eroded regard for the church. While some still believed that religion held all the answers, others were beginning to put faith into reason and science. The uncertainty of the existance of God made people question the Church. Perhaps one of the most vital blows to the Church was the printing of the Bible in the

Questions Kooistra Autogroep Essay

2. Evaluate the budgeting, performance measurement, and incentive systems used at Kooistra Autogroep. What changes would you recommend, if any? Budgeting system: The CEO introduced a formal annual budgeting process. The main target of this budgeting system was to determine the net profit targets for the year. The net profit target is the company’s revenue minus the controllable expenses. These targets were for the company’s departments and should help with decentralization of the company. The budgeting process was ment to be bottom-up. This means that the managers of the departments could prepare the budgets and the CEO and CFO then reviewed these budgets. Most managers are unexperienced with budgeting and the review of the CFO and CEO would lead to a discussion so that the managers would get more and more confident with budgeting. This would help the decentralization. The car industry is an industry, which is really dependable on the economic conditions. So the budget made at the beginning of the year is not always a feasible budget. Reviewing the budget a few times a year could change this. The CEO helps out sometimes when the budget target probably is not going to be made. But the managers cannot depend on this. Performance measurement: The new performance measurement now includes not only financial information but also nonfinancial information. The performance measurement system is used to communicate the company’s objectives to the personnel. The objects that are measured in the performance are the most important objectives. The performance measurements provide the managers with the information to do their job properly and it provides feedback to the top management about the performance of the managers. The company uses ‘Balanced Scorecard’ on a weekly basis. The balanced scorecard provides key metrics for the manager’s list of targets and it provides an indication of the progress towards budget target. Besides the balanced scorecard the managers get also a monthly report, which is more detailed about the company’s operations. Recommendation: the balanced scorecard is used to measure the manager’s performance for different factors. These factors are financial and nonfinancial. But it is not very clear what the targets are. Every  dealership has to have a return of sales of 2% but there is not given any further financial of nonfinancial performance indicator. Incentive system: A major change for the Kooistra Autogroep was the expansion of the pay-for performance system. The pay-for performance system already existed in the company but only for a few sales people. But this is limited and not fully covered for all the sales people. Because of the already excising contract and rejecting the pay-for performance bonus system not every sales person is accounted with pay for performance. This could lead to disorder and unfair situation. Because when its not going well with the economy and so with the dealerships sales the sales people with the pay for performance are accounted for the less sales. But the sales people with the normal salary contract are not accounted for the fewer sales. Also in normal situations the sales people with the pay-for performance system will try to do their best because their salary depends on their performance. While for the sales people with the normal contracts its not as much depended on their performance. For the management team the pay-for performance does its work for every member. So it’s fairer. The managers could also receive a bonus reduction when some criteria were not met. But it’s said that this would be a very subjective decision and it was not really clear on what criteria it depends. This should be changed and made clear on what criteria or totally deleted. Note: It is said that no bonus will be paid for below or above target performance, which is strange. Because as a company u would want to have above target performance. Further more the pay for performance system is a relatively unknown system in Dutch companies and the personnel of the company are not really pleased with this system. So it would be point to think about for the company to introduce the system quietly. This could be done for example by starting with a tradional bonus system and next to that also a pay for performance system. So using both systems for a few years and then switch to only a pay-for performance system.

Psychoactive Drugs and Their Effects

Psychology Psychoactive Drugs and their Effects Medications that effect people psychologically are called psychoactive drugs. They are often helpful in treating depression, anxiety, insomnia, and other psychological complications. Psychoactive drugs don’t affect the underlying causes of these disorders, but they can provide symptomatic relief to allow people to live more normal lives. Anxiety can be defined as persistent nervousness, tension, or panic caused by stress or other psychological causes. Anti-anxiety drugs (also know as minor tranquilizers) are used to promote relaxation or reduce the physical symptoms of anxiety. Everyone feels depressed at times, but when it is prolonged and starts interfering with daily life, support, professional help, and psychoactive medications may be appropriate. Insomnia has many causes, including anxiety and depression. When the cause is known and can be treated, sleep patterns generally return to normal. When the insomnia is persistent, sleeping drugs may be appropriate. Drugs are classified according to their effects and actions on the mind and body. Example: Depressants, Hallucinogens, opiates and stimulants. Depressants (sometimes called downers) are a class of drugs that slow normal brain function. It acts on the central nervous system because of this effect on GABA activity that produces a drowsy or calming effect. GABA works to decrease brain activity. Depressants also carry high addictive potential. The withdrawal effects from long-term depressant use can be life- threatening and produce some of the worst consequences of any other drug classifications. Examples: alcohol, Valium, Xanax, Librium, and barbiturates. Hallucinogens (commonly referred to as Psychedelics) are drugs which cause altered perception and feeling. Hallucinogens have powerful mind –altering effects and can change how the brain perceives times, everyday reality, and the surrounding environment. They affect regions of the brain that are responsible for coordination, thought processes, hearing and sight. They can cause sensory or perceptual distortions in people to hear voices, see things, and feel sensations that do not exist. Hallucinogens change the way the brain works by changing the way nerve cells communicate with one another. Hallucinogens possess a moderate potential for addiction with very high potential for tolerance, moderate level of psychological dependence and low potential for physical dependence. Examples: LSD, PCP, MDMA,(Ecstasy), marijuana, mescaline, and psilocybin. Opiates (or narcotics) are powerful painkillers. They are made from opium, a white liquid in the poppy plant. Opiates produce a quick, intense feeling of pleasure followed by a sense of well being and calm. Long-term opiate use changes the way the brain works by changing the way nerve cells communicate with one another. If opiates are taken away from opiate-dependant brain cells, many of them will become overactive. As with many other drugs, opiates possess very addictive potential. Examples: heroin, morphine, codeine, Oxycontin. Stimulants (uppers) are a class of drugs that elevate mood, increase feelings of well-being, and increase energy and alertness. Stimulants can cause the heart to beat faster and will also cause blood pressure and breathing to evaluate. Repeated use of stimulants can result in paranoia and hostility. As with other drugs, stimulants possess very high addictive potential. Examples: cocaine, methamphetamine, amphetamine, MDMA (Ecstasy), nicotine and caffeine. Drug Abuse generally refers to drug taking that cause emotional or physical harm to one self or others example, operating machinery or driving a vehicle, while â€Å"under the influence† of alcohol. Addiction is a broad term referring to a condition in which a person feels compelled to use a specific drug. Drug addiction can be psychological, physical or both. Drug addiction is not the same as substance abuse or drug abuse. A Individual who abuse drugs are not necessarily drug dependent, people who are addicted to drugs, conversely are also called drug abusers.